Inanis_Vault/40-Archive/College Assignments/Research References.md

type, title, description, icon, createdAt, creationDate, modificationDate, tags, coverImage

type	title	description	icon	createdAt	creationDate	modificationDate	tags	coverImage
Page	Research References	null	null	2025-05-05T20:53:00.904Z	2025-05-06 05:53	2025-05-08 11:19		null

Implicit and Explicit Knowledge in Second Language Learning, Testing and Teaching ~

Info Link

The studies examined the relationship between measures of L2 implicit and explicit knowledge and measures of general language proficiency. The goal was to explore how much language proficiency can be explained by these two types of knowledge.

• Differential Contribution to Skills: The text suggests that implicit and explicit knowledge contribute differently to language skills.

• Challenges in Measurement: The text acknowledges the difficulty in creating separate measures of implicit and explicit knowledge. The studies aimed to design tests that would encourage test-takers to rely on one type of knowledge over the other.

• Mixed Results and Further Research Needed: The results of the two studies were different, and the text suggests that more research is needed to fully understand the role of implicit/explicit knowledge in modeling language proficiency.

• No Statistically Significant Differences in Learning: The mixed design ANOVAs revealed no statistically significant differences between the performance of either Treatment and control groups on tests of implicit and explicit language knowledge.

• The text focuses more on the learning processes and how to measure them.

  • "Does explicit instruction result in the acquisition of implicit as well as explicit knowledge? These are key questions of both theoretical importance for SLA and practical importance for language pedagogy." (Somewhere in Chp1)

• Most likely best used to explain the significance of Implicit and Explicit types of information when it comes to language learning

  • Defines Explicit vs Implicit in the introduction

Implicit and Explicit Teaching of Grammar: An Empirical Study - Edgar Mendoz Lopez

Study Introduction and Initial Findings

• Edgar Mendoza López conducted an empirical study on the effects of implicit and explicit grammar instruction on EFL students' performance.

• The study involved three groups: an implicit instruction group, an explicit instruction group, and a control group, and found that students in the explicit instruction group achieved significantly higher scores.

• The research suggests that explicit grammar instruction has a more significant impact on language learning than implicit instruction, contradicting views such as those of Krashen, who claims that grammar can be learned holistically through context without explicit instruction.

Background: Implicit vs. Explicit Grammar Debate

• The debate on the role of teaching grammar in L2 instruction has shifted from whether instruction makes a difference to what types of instruction are most effective, with a focus on implicit and explicit grammar teaching.

• Researchers such as Krashen and Winitz support the implicit method, arguing that grammar can be acquired naturally through exposure to comprehensible input, while others like Ellis and Scott support the explicit method, which involves intentional learning and conscious awareness of grammar rules.

• Studies by Scott and DeKeyser have shown that explicit teaching of grammar can lead to better student performance, particularly in written tests, while implicit teaching may be more effective in promoting natural language use and acquisition.

Study Results and Discussion

• The study found that explicit teaching of grammar is more effective than implicit teaching, with students in the explicit instruction group achieving higher average scores.

• The results support the idea that learners do better when grammar is taught under explicit conditions, as suggested by researchers such as DeKeyser (1995) and Norris and Ortega (2000).

• The study's findings are consistent with those of Green and Hecht (1992), who found that explicit knowledge of grammar can help foreign language learners achieve a good level of competence.

• The study found that students who received explicit grammar instruction performed significantly better than those who did not.

• The results suggest that explicit instructional strategies are important in the development of foreign language educational programs.

Future Research Directions

• Further study is needed to determine the overall effectiveness of explicit instruction in the long term and to identify which linguistic structures are more suitable for explicit or implicit instruction, as noted by researchers such as DeKeyser, Ellis, and Krashen.

Appendix Description

• The text appears to be an appendix from the document "Implicit and Explicit Teaching of Grammar: An Empirical Study" by Edgar Mendoza Lopez.

• It contains grammar exercises, including fill-in-the-blank questions and multiple-choice questions, focusing on various grammar topics such as if-clauses, real conditions, and past simple vs. past continuous tenses.

• The exercises are designed to test the reader's understanding of grammar rules and their ability to apply them in different contexts.

Reviewing the Effects of

Explicit and Implicit Grammar Instruction in Second Language Acquisition - Jonathan Grahn Sherin ~

Sherin, J.G., 2023. Reviewing the Effects of Explicit and Implicit Grammar Instruction in Second Language Acquisition. Linköping University.

Introduction and Overview

• The thesis "Reviewing the Effects of Explicit and Implicit Grammar Instruction in Second-language acquisition " by Jonathan Grahn Sherin aims to investigate the effectiveness of explicit and implicit grammar instruction in second language learning contexts.

• The study analyzes empirical articles to answer three research questions: the effects of explicit grammar instruction on L2 learners' grammar knowledge, the effects of implicit grammar instruction on L2 learners' grammar knowledge, and how these effects are sustained in the long term.

• The results show that explicit grammar instruction is more effective than implicit grammar instruction, facilitating the learning of both explicit and implicit knowledge, and having positive effects on receptive and productive skills, but requiring follow-up instruction or communicative tasks for long-term effects.

Background and Context

• The field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) has shifted its focus from grammar items to the context in which language learning takes place, influenced by usage-based learning.

• The Swedish Curriculum for English in upper secondary schools emphasizes communicative language ability, with a focus on general proficiency and fluency in the four language skills, rather than specific grammar structures.

• The distinction between English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a second or foreign language (EFL) is acknowledged, with ESL referring to languages learned in a context where they are widely used, and EFL referring to languages learned in a context where they are not widely used.

• Grammar instruction is a key aspect of Second-language acquisition , with debates surrounding the effectiveness of explicit and implicit instruction, and the current meta-analysis aims to provide an updated review of the effectiveness of grammar instruction, building on previous studies by researchers such as Norris and Ortega, and Williams.

Defining Explicit Grammar Instruction

• Explicit grammar instruction involves technical, memorization, drilling, and rule-governed practice to turn explicit knowledge into implicit knowledge, with methods including Focus on Form (FonF) and Focus on FormS, as well as deductive and inductive approaches.

• Research by Norris and Ortega (2000) and DeKeyser (2003) suggests that explicit grammar instruction is more effective than implicit instruction, with deductive approaches being particularly effective for adult learners.

• The complexity of grammar structures, predicted by variables such as frequency, saliency, functional value, and regularity, can affect the effectiveness of explicit or implicit instruction, with some structures being more suitable for implicit learning and others requiring explicit instruction, as noted by Ellis (2006).

Methodology

• The thesis reviews the effects of explicit and implicit grammar instruction in Second-language acquisition (SLA), using a narrative literature review approach.

• The data consists of empirical studies from academic journals, SLA handbooks, and published literature reviews, focusing on various target structures, proficiency levels, and age cohorts.

• The studies are categorized and analyzed based on factors such as methodology, age of participants, and type of instruction (explicit or implicit), with a focus on the effects of explicit and implicit instruction on implicit and explicit knowledge, reception, and production.

Review Findings: Explicit vs. Implicit Instruction

• Explicit instruction has a significant effect on both explicit and implicit knowledge, with studies by Akakura, Ebadi et al., and Michaud & Ammar showing its benefits.

• Inductive methods of explicit instruction are found to be more beneficial than deductive methods, particularly in long-term production and reception, as seen in Dang and Nguyen's study.

• Implicit grammar instruction facilitates the acquisition of implicit knowledge and, to some extent, explicit knowledge, but its effects on production are limited, as shown in studies by Godfroid and De Jong.

• Studies by Scott (1990), Andrews (2007), De Graaff (1997), and Nazari (2013) found that explicit grammar instruction is more effective than implicit grammar instruction for learning complex grammatical structures.

• Explicit grammar instruction was also found to be more effective for receptive and productive skills, as seen in studies by Nazari (2013), Dang and Nguyen (2013), and De Jong (2005).

• However, implicit instruction may be sufficient for learning simple grammatical structures, as suggested by Andrews (2007) and De Graaff (1997), who found that explicit instruction was not significantly more effective than implicit instruction for simple structures.

Discussion and Synthesis

• Explicit grammar instruction has a significant positive effect on L2 learners' grammar knowledge, with studies such as Akakura (2012), Dang & Nguyen (2013), and Tode (2007) showing positive results.

• The effect of explicit instruction on implicit knowledge is still debated, with some studies (Akakura 2012, Dang & Nguyen 2013) finding a positive effect, while others (Tode 2007) find that the effect wears off over time.

• Long-term effects of explicit grammar instruction are more likely to occur when linked to communicative practice and natural language exposure, as seen in studies by Klapper & Rees (2003) and Akakura (2012).

• Explicit grammar instruction is more effective than implicit grammar instruction, as supported by studies such as Andrews (2007), De Graaff (1997), and De Jong (2005).

• The effectiveness of explicit and implicit instruction can vary depending on the complexity of the grammar structure, with explicit instruction being more effective for complex structures, as noted by researchers like Klapper and Rees (2003) and Ortega (2009).

• The combination of explicit and implicit instruction can be beneficial, with explicit instruction facilitating the learning of grammar knowledge and implicit instruction enabling learners to acquire and retain that knowledge long-term, as suggested by researchers like Akakura (2012) and Krashen (1985).

Limitations and Future Research

• The empirical articles reviewed have many differing variables, making it difficult to draw definite conclusions about the effectiveness of explicit and implicit grammar instruction.

• The inclusion of studies targeting various languages, such as German and French, does not jeopardize the overall aim of the study, but the diversity in other variables complicates the synthesis of the studies.

• Future research should aim to standardize study designs and consider longitudinal studies to supply substantial and reliable data, as suggested by researchers like Norris and Ortega, and Klapper and Rees.

Evaluating the effectiveness of

explicit instruction on implicit and explicit L2 knowledge - Motoko Akakura ~

Link with Info

Akakura, M., 2012. Evaluating the effectiveness of explicit instruction on implicit and explicit L2 knowledge. Language Teaching Research, 16(1), pp.9-37.

Introduction

• The study by Motoko Akakura examines the effectiveness of explicit instruction on second language (L2) learners' implicit and explicit knowledge of English, specifically focusing on the use of English articles.

• The research investigates whether explicit instruction, delivered through Computer Assisted Language Learning (journal) (Computer-assisted language learning ) activities, can improve L2 learners' ability to use English articles correctly, with a focus on both implicit and explicit knowledge.

• The study aims to contribute to the ongoing debate on the effectiveness of instruction on the development of L2 knowledge, particularly for advanced learners, and explores the role of explicit instruction in developing implicit knowledge, as proposed by researchers such as Rod Ellis and Nick Ellis.

• The study by Motoko Akakura evaluates the effectiveness of explicit instruction on implicit and explicit L2 knowledge, focusing on the acquisition of generic and non-generic article usages in L2 English.

Methodology Overview

• The research examines the effects of explicit instruction through CALL activities, comparing the results of experimental and control groups on tests of implicit and explicit knowledge.

• The study involves 94 L2 English participants in New Zealand, with instruction delivered over a 1-week period, and posttests administered immediately and six weeks after the treatment, referencing the work of researchers such as Ellis, DeKeyser, and Batstone.

Measurement Tasks

• The study by Motoko Akakura evaluates the effectiveness of explicit instruction on implicit and explicit L2 knowledge, using tasks such as elicited imitation, oral production, grammaticality judgement, and metalinguistic knowledge.

• The tasks were designed to measure implicit and explicit knowledge, with the elicited imitation task being a new approach to measuring implicit knowledge, as suggested by Erlam (2006) and validated by Akakura (2009).

Results

• The results show significant differences between the Experimental Group and the Control Group, with the Experimental Group outperforming the Control Group in all tasks, indicating the effectiveness of explicit instruction on both implicit and explicit L2 knowledge.

• The study by Motoko Akakura found that explicit instruction has a significant effect on implicit language knowledge, particularly in the delayed posttest.

• The results show that explicit instruction leads to significant improvements in metalinguistic knowledge, with large effect sizes in both posttests.

• The study's findings support the idea that instructed learners can develop implicit knowledge of non-salient forms through self-paced autonomous study, contrary to some previous article acquisition studies, such as those by Huong, Shimamune and Jitsumori, and Shiozawa and Simmons.

Discussion and Conclusion

• Explicit instruction can benefit both implicit and explicit L2 knowledge, with positive effects on the acquisition of English articles.

• The study found that explicit instruction was effective in improving oral production of articles and helped learners become better analysts of article errors, as suggested by researchers like DeKeyser and Ellis.

• The results support the claim that articles should be taught even at advanced stages of English acquisition, and provide a case for a direct rule-giving approach in Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) activities, as discussed by Master and other researchers.

References and Appendix Description

• The text appears to be a reference list and an appendix from a research document titled 'Evaluating the effectiveness of explicit instruction on implicit and explicit L2 knowledge' by Motoko Akakura.

• The reference list includes various authors such as Han, Ellis, Hinkel, Fotos, and Krashen, discussing topics related to language acquisition, grammar instruction, and second-Language Learning (journal) .

• The appendix describes an elicited imitation task, a True or False and creative sentence-making task, used to measure implicit knowledge, where participants listen to a story and respond to questions based on the story and pictures provided.

Study and Test Summary

• The study by Motoko Akakura evaluates the effectiveness of explicit instruction on implicit and explicit L2 knowledge.

• The study uses various tests, including an Elicited Imitation Task, an Oral Production Task, a Grammaticality Judgement Test, and a Metalinguistic Knowledge Test.

• The tests assess participants' ability to identify and correct grammatical errors, as well as their metalinguistic knowledge, with participants asked to decide whether underlined words are correct or not and explain how they made their judgement, choosing between 'By Feel' or 'By Rule'.

The Effect of Explicit Grammar Instruction on Language Learning - Pahala Baruwattegedara Sampath Lakshala Pushpa Kumara

• The study by Pahala Baruwattegedara Sampath Lakshala Pushpa Kumara investigates the impact of explicit grammar instruction on Second-language acquisition in a second language classroom.

• The research involves two groups of adult learners, an experimental group that receives instructions using their first language and a control group that receives instructions without using their first language.

• The findings suggest that explicit grammar instruction helps learners improve their ability to use grammar in isolation, but not in contextually appropriate ways, highlighting the need for careful planning of explicit grammar instruction lessons.

• The study by Pahala Baruwattegedara Sampath Lakshala Pushpa Kumara investigates the effect of explicit grammar instruction on language learning, with a focus on beginner-level adult L2 learners.

• The results show that learners who received explicit grammar instruction with limited use of their first language (L1) performed significantly better than those who received instruction only in English.

• However, the study also found that explicit instruction on grammar in isolation did not help learners improve their ability to use grammar in contextually appropriate ways, suggesting that a more comprehensive approach to language instruction may be necessary.

• The study found that explicit grammar instruction does not enable learners to use grammar in contextually appropriate ways, supporting the views of Krashen (1982) and Wilkins (1972).

• However, this does not mean that conscious grammar learning is of no use, and explicit instruction can be a starting point, particularly for beginner-level adult learners.

• The study suggests that explicit grammar instruction should be carefully planned and used as a springboard to initiate the process of Second-language acquisition , with opportunities for learners to engage in communicative activities that allow them to see the complex intricacies of the human language.

A Meta-analysis of the Effectiveness of

Second Language Pragmatics Instruction - Wei Ren, Shaofeng Li, Xiaoxuan LÜ ~

Link with Info

Ren, W., Li, S. and Lü, X., 2023. A Meta-analysis of the Effectiveness of Second Language Pragmatics Instruction. Applied Linguistics, 44(6), pp.1010–1029.

Initial Meta-Analysis Findings (Ren, Li, & Lü)

• A meta-analysis of 29 primary studies on second language pragmatics instruction found a large, positive effect on the development of Pragmatics competence, with an Effect size of 1.656.

• The analysis revealed that explicit instruction yielded larger effects than implicit instruction, although the difference was not significant, and that pragmatics instruction was more effective in foreign language settings than in second language settings.

• The study also found that longer treatments, teaching pragmatics at the high-school level, and using written discourse completion tasks as outcome measures generated larger effect sizes, according to researchers Wei Ren, Shaofeng Li, and Xiaoxuan Lü.

Comparison with Prior Work and Study Rationale

• Plonsky and Zhuang's (2019) meta-analysis of 50 studies found significant and sustainable effects for L2 pragmatics instruction, with explicit instruction, teaching with feedback, and longer instruction being more effective.

• The study also found that production measures showed larger effects than reception measures, and that more proficient learners (high intermediate to advanced) produced larger effects than lower proficient learners.

• The current study aims to address the limitations of previous meta-analyses, including the lack of inclusion of recent studies, limited exploration of moderator factors, and lenient inclusive selection criteria, by conducting a new meta-analysis with a strict selection process and including studies published up to 2021.

Detailed Results and Moderator Analysis

• The study by Wei Ren, Shaofeng Li, and Xiaoxuan Lü examined the effectiveness of second language pragmatics instruction through a meta-analysis of 29 studies.

• The results showed a large overall mean effect size for pragmatics instruction (g = 1.656), indicating that pragmatics instruction is effective in improving learners' pragmatic abilities.

• Moderator analyses revealed that factors such as research setting, institutional level, treatment length, and language proficiency influenced the effectiveness of pragmatics instruction, with explicit instruction and longer treatment lengths tend to produce larger effect sizes.

• The meta-analysis found that L2 pragmatics instruction is effective, with an overall effect size of g = 1.656, indicating a positive effect.

• The study identified several moderators of the effectiveness of L2 pragmatics instruction, including learners' L2 proficiency level, target language, and outcome measure, with intermediate learners, English language as the target language, and written DCTs yielding the largest effect sizes.

• The results also suggested that teaching pragmatics in foreign language (FL) contexts yields larger effects than in second language (SL) contexts, and that high-school students may benefit the most from L2 pragmatics instruction, according to researchers such as Ren, Li, and Lü, who built on previous work by Kasper and Rose, Takahashi, and Taguchi.

• The study found that explicit teaching (g = 1.731) yielded larger effect sizes than implicit teaching (g = 1.511) in L2 pragmatics instruction, but the difference was not significant.

• The effect sizes of pragmatics instruction varied depending on factors such as treatment length, outcome measurement, and language of instruction, with written DCTs producing the strongest effects.

• The study suggests that implicit pragmatics instruction is becoming increasingly effective, with innovative approaches such as task-based language teaching and technology-mediated language teaching leading to more robust effects.

Document Identification and Scope

• The document 'A Meta-analysis of the Effectiveness of Second Language Pragmatics Instruction' by Wei Ren, Shaofeng Li, and Xiaoxuan Lü discusses the effectiveness of instruction in second language pragmatics.

• The authors reference various studies on the topic, including those by Kasper, Rose, Taguchi, and others, to inform their meta-analysis.

• The research aims to synthesize existing studies on the effectiveness of second language pragmatics instruction, with contributors including experts in Applied Linguistics (journal) , language teaching, and research methods.

Explicit and implicit

Learning in Second Language Acquisition - Bill VanPatten and Megan Smith ~

Link with Info

VanPatten, B. and Smith, M., 2022. Explicit and Implicit Learning in Second Language Acquisition. Elements in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Introduction and Core Argument

• The document "Explicit and Implicit Learning in Second-language acquisition " by Bill VanPatten and Megan Smith explores the roles of explicit and implicit learning in second language acquisition.

• The authors argue that second language acquisition is largely implicit in nature, with explicit learning playing a secondary role in how learners grapple with meaning.

• The discussion focuses on key issues, including the definition of explicit and implicit learning, the possibility of explicit knowledge becoming implicit knowledge, and the relevance of the explicit/implicit learning issue for practitioners, with the authors contending that the evidence weighs heavily on the side of implicit learning in L2 acquisition.

Defining Explicit and Implicit Learning

• Explicit learning is a conscious process where learners intentionally search for rules and regularities in input, whereas implicit learning is an unconscious process without such intention.

• The distinction between explicit and implicit learning hinges on intent, with explicit learning involving a purposeful attempt to learn something and implicit learning lacking such intent.

The Nature of Language and its Components

• Language is viewed as an abstract, complex, and implicit system of mental representations, distinct from communication, and consists of modular subsystems including the lexicon, morphological system, syntactic component, and phonological system.

• The linguistic modules that must be acquired in Second-language acquisition include syntax, which combines words into phrases and phrases into sentences, and phonology, which includes the set of sounds a language uses and the rules for combining them.

• Syntax is a computational system that uses basic operations such as Merge, Move, and Agree to combine lexical entries into phrases and sentences, and it includes linguistic universals and language-specific constraints.

• The acquisition of syntax is a by-product of lexical learning, with language-specific constraints such as word order and features being mapped to lexical entries, and the basics of the computational system being built into the human capacity for language.

• Phonological learning involves acquiring the set of sounds a language uses, the rules for combining these sounds, and suprasegmental information such as stress and intonation contours.

The Process of Language Acquisition

• The principal ingredients that interact to shape language in the learner's mind/brain are input, internal mechanisms that constrain and contribute to the shape of language, and processors that mediate between input and internal mechanisms, with Universal grammar (UG) being a key internal mechanism that restricts the nature of language as it grows in the mind/brain.

• Language acquisition involves mechanisms that aid in discerning meaning, which are related to general learning mechanisms and may be important for explicit learning.

• Input processors play a crucial role in bridging the gap between input and the learner's internal mechanisms, processing input data into form-meaning connections such as morphophonological units.

• The processing and learning of these units involve mapping meaning and grammatical properties onto them, with the strength of encoded information determined by frequency in the input, as discussed by researchers like VanPatten and Rothman.

• The process of language acquisition is comprehension-dependent, with learners selecting and operating on data from communicatively embedded input.

• Learners must uncover the meaning and intent of the speaker, isolate and tag morpho-phonological units with meaning, and compute sentence structure at an abstract level.

Evidence for Implicit Acquisition of the Linguistic System

• The linguistic system is likely learned implicitly, with research supporting the idea that explicit learning is not central or perhaps even possible in Second-language acquisition , as argued by Bill VanPatten and others, including Rebuschat and VanPatten, Keating, & Wulff.

• Learners acquire language through an implicit system, where they unconsciously build a system over time, mapping features such as [+/−PERFECTIVE] onto verbs like ser and estar.

• The acquisition of person-number endings in L2 Spanish language follows a staged development, with learners initially using bare verbs, then singular forms, and finally plural forms, which does not reflect explicit instruction or practice.

• Explicit learning is not involved in the acquisition of formal features of language, but may be involved in attempting to derive meaning during comprehension, while implicit learning is involved in constructing the linguistic system over time, as argued by researchers like VanPatten and Krashen.

Explicit/Implicit Knowledge, Interface, and Theoretical Perspectives

• Explicit and implicit knowledge of language are separate entities and are stored differently in the mind/brain, as widely accepted in linguistics and psychology.

• The idea that both explicit and implicit learning are involved in Second-language acquisition is a popular perspective, but the concept of an "interface" between the two is vague and lacks a clear definition, as noted by researchers such as Ellis and VanPatten.

• Usage-based approaches (UBAs) to language acquisition, as discussed by scholars like Ellis and Tomasello, suggest that language acquisition is implicit and input-dependent, with explicit learning playing a limited role in the development of mental representation.

• Explicit learning can play a role in supplementing linguistic behavior, but its usefulness is limited by factors such as cognitive resources and task type, as suggested by researchers like Roehr-Brackin and Krashen.

• Implicit learning is considered central to language acquisition, with some researchers like DeKeyser suggesting that explicit learning may play a role in certain contexts, such as skill theory, but with limitations.

• Different perspectives, including sociocultural theory and skill theory, have varying views on the role of explicit and implicit learning, with some emphasizing the importance of explicit knowledge and others prioritizing implicit learning, as discussed by researchers like DeKeyser and Lantolf.

The Noticing Hypothesis

• The Noticing hypothesis (NH) proposes that learner attention to input facilitates the L2 acquisition process, with the strong version suggesting that no aspect of Second-language acquisition can be implicit or incidental.

• The weak version of the NH posits that some amount of learner attention facilitates L2 acquisition, and most scholars agree that some level of attention to the input is necessary for L2 acquisition.

Empirical Research on Implicit and Explicit Learning

• Research on implicit and explicit learning in SLA has been influenced by Reber's work, which operationalized implicit learning as "learning in the absence of awareness" and explicit learning as "learning with awareness", with studies such as those by John Williams and his colleagues investigating whether people can learn languages implicitly using various grammatical structures and systems.

• Research by Leung and Williams, and Williams and Kuribara, used an exposure/test-of-violations paradigm to investigate implicit learning of form-meaning mappings and the head-directionality parameter, finding that participants can learn rules implicitly but may not always apply them correctly.

• These studies have limitations, such as using artificial languages or separating syntactic learning from morphophonological learning, which may not accurately reflect language acquisition processes.

• In contrast, studies by VanPatten and colleagues used real language input, including vocabulary and syntax, to investigate language acquisition and found that participants can reset the head-directionality parameter and show sensitivity to word order violations, suggesting that implicit learning can occur through meaningful input.

• Research suggests that explicit information is not necessary for language acquisition, with studies such as Wong and Ito (2017) and Andringa and Curcic (2015) showing that learners can acquire language without explicit rules.

• The study by Andringa and Curcic found that both implicit and explicit groups performed equally well in a picture selection task, but the explicit group showed different patterns of looks toward the target noun in online processing.

• The results indicate that explicit knowledge can change online processing behaviors, but it does not necessarily help learners rely on the presence of certain linguistic features, such as the preposition "al" in the case of differential object marking (DOM).

The Poverty of the Stimulus Problem

• The Poverty of the stimulus (POS) problem is a challenge for second language learners, as they must arrive at what is ungrammatical and impossible in a language, often without evidence in the input.

• Research by VanPatten and Smith (2015) shows that learners can project beyond what they are initially exposed to, and arrive at abstract knowledge about language implicitly, without conscious knowledge or explicit teaching.

• The POS problem is a challenge for explicit learning, as learners must develop mental representations of language that go beyond the input they receive, and this process must happen implicitly, as seen in studies on the acquisition of Japanese language and Spanish language .

Conclusion on Implicit Learning's Centrality and Pedagogical Implications

• The authors argue that implicit learning is central to language acquisition, regardless of context or age, and that it plays a crucial role in the development of a linguistic system as a mental representation.

• Research on aptitude, such as the concept of implicit language aptitude developed by Gisela Granena, supports the idea that implicit learning is essential for language acquisition.

• The authors suggest that the distinction between implicit and explicit learning is not necessarily relevant to pedagogical approaches, and that practitioners should consider multiple factors when making curricular decisions, rather than relying solely on research on implicit and explicit learning.

Concluding Remarks and Related Scholarship

• The document "Explicit and Implicit Learning in Second-language acquisition " by Bill VanPatten discusses key concepts in second language acquisition, including the role of consciousness and the distinction between explicit and implicit learning.

• Researchers such as Reber, Schmidt, and VanPatten have contributed to the understanding of implicit learning, with studies on artificial grammars, language processing, and the effects of instruction on language acquisition.

• The document also references the work of other scholars, including Alessandro Benati and John W. Schwieter, who have published research on second language acquisition and teaching, and are part of the editorial team for the Cambridge University Press series on Second Language Acquisition.

Implicit AND explicit language learning - Nick Ellis

Introduction to Implicit and Explicit Language Learning

• Nick Ellis discusses the dynamic interface between implicit and explicit Second-language acquisition , highlighting their complexity and importance in language acquisition.

• Implicit learning involves the unconscious acquisition of knowledge about language structures through experience and frequency of use, while explicit learning is a more conscious process where learners make and test hypotheses.

• Ellis emphasizes the need for an emergentist perspective to understand the complex system of language that arises from the interactions between implicit and explicit Second-language acquisition and usage, citing researchers such as Bybee, Robinson, and Tomasello.

• Language learners acquire knowledge of language frequencies, transitional dependencies, and mappings through implicit learning, without conscious computation.

Implicit Language Learning: Mechanisms and Evidence

• Research by Arthur Reber, Nick Ellis, and others demonstrates that learners automatically acquire knowledge of sequential patterns and dependencies through repeated experience.

• Studies by Hilpert, Kapatsinski, Bod, and others show that language processing is affected by sequential statistics, chunking, and formulaic knowledge, influencing phonetic processing, lexical perception, reading time, and sentence production.

• Research by Nick Ellis and others, including Jiang and Nekrasova, Conklin and Schmitt, and Ellis and Simpson-Vlach, shows that language users, including L2 learners, are sensitive to the sequential probabilities of language units and can implicitly learn language patterns.

• The findings demonstrate that language users are able to process formulaic sequences more quickly and accurately than non-formulaic phrases, and that this knowledge is cultivated through usage experience, with frequency and mutual information being key determinants.

Limitations of Implicit Learning and the Role of Explicit Learning

• However, the limits of implicit Second-language acquisition are also noted, with research by Schmidt, Long, and Lightbown, Spada, and White, suggesting that Second-language acquisition by implicit means alone is limited, and that not all input becomes intake, particularly for low-salient cues such as grammatical functors.

• Implicit language learning is limited by factors such as salience, interference, and blocking, which can be overcome by explicit instruction, as noted by Nick Ellis and other researchers like Schmidt and Lado.

• Explicit language learning is necessary in L2 acquisition to counteract L1 attentional biases and facilitate the learning of novel linguistic forms and concepts, with researchers like Doughty, Williams, and Long supporting the effectiveness of form-focused instruction.

Interaction, Cognition, and Language Dynamics

• The interaction between implicit and explicit language learning processes plays a crucial role in language acquisition, with the brain's neural systems, including those involved in working memory and the hippocampus, contributing to the interface between explicit knowledge and implicit learning, as discussed by Ellis and supported by neurobiological research.

• Language Learning (journal) involves determining structure from usage and requires the full scope of cognition, with attention controlling the acquisition of language.

• The dynamics of language use, language change, language perception, and Second-language acquisition are interconnected, and understanding these interactions is key to usage-based approaches to language acquisition, as emphasized by researchers such as Nick Ellis, Barlow, and Kemmer.

• Language can be seen as a Complex adaptive system , with implicit and explicit language learning and usage being constant currents in its dynamics, and studying this system is necessary to understand the dynamic interactions of implicit and explicit knowledge, as noted by Ellis and other researchers.

References and Cited Researchers

• The document 'Implicit AND explicit language learning' by Nick Ellis references various studies on language acquisition, including those by Ellis, Larsen-Freeman, and Sagarra.

• Researchers such as Reber, Rebuschat, and Williams have contributed to the understanding of implicit and explicit Second-language acquisition , with topics including statistical learning and language acquisition.

• The text cites numerous authors, including Goldberg, Gries, and Krashen, discussing language learning theories, cognitive linguistics, and Second-language acquisition .

• The section references various researchers, including Nick Ellis, Peter Robinson, and Richard Schmidt (linguist) , in the context of implicit and explicit language learning.

• It cites studies on second language acquisition, cognitive linguistics, and the role of consciousness in language learning.

• The references include works from multiple fields, such as Applied Linguistics (journal) , language teaching, and cognitive psychology, with contributions from authors like Michael Tomasello, Nina Spada, and others.

Developing Strategic Competence through Task-Based Language Teaching: A Comparison of Implicit and Explicit Instruction - Khalid Ibrahim Alahmed ~

Link with Info

Alahmed, K.I., 2017. Developing strategic competence through task-based language teaching – a comparison of implicit and explicit instruction. PhD Thesis. University of York.

Introduction and Background

• Khalid Ibrahim Alahmed's study compares the impact of implicit and explicit instruction on developing strategic competence through task-based language teaching among pre-intermediate Arabic learners of English language .

• The study found that both explicit and implicit instruction have a positive impact on developing participants' use of Communication Strategies (CSs) and supporting task completion.

• Explicit instruction was beneficial for certain CSs, such as meaning-negotiation, while implicit instruction was effective for developing positive self-solving and time-gaining CSs.

• The study "Developing Strategic Competence through Task-Based Language Teaching: A Comparison of Implicit and Explicit Instruction" by Khalid investigates the effectiveness of implicit and explicit instruction in developing strategic competence in language learners.

• Learners who received implicit instruction made greater gains in the use of meaning-negotiation strategies than those who received explicit instruction.

• The study compares the effects of implicit and explicit instruction on the development of various communication strategies, including interactional, positive self-solving, time-gaining, non-verbal, and non-taught strategies.

• The study aims to investigate the impact of implicit and explicit instruction on developing strategic competence in English language learners, specifically through Task-Based Language Teaching.

• The research focuses on pre-intermediate Arab learners of English and seeks to assess the effectiveness of implicit and explicit instruction in supporting task completion and developing learners' use of communication strategies.

• The study has four research questions, including the effectiveness of implicit and explicit instruction in supporting task completion and developing learners' use of communication strategies, as well as the types of communication strategies developed through each type of instruction.

• Non-native speakers may experience communication difficulties due to linguistic, cultural, or contextual factors, and they employ various strategies such as circumlocution, approximation, and appeals for help to overcome these difficulties.

• Strategic competence, a sub-component of Communicative competence , refers to the ability to use communication strategies effectively to achieve communicative goals, and it has been defined in different ways by researchers such as Canale and Swain, Canale, and Celce-Murcia et al.

• The development of strategic competence can be facilitated through Task-Based Language Teaching, and researchers such as Ellis and DeKeyser suggest that implicit instruction, which involves creating a learning condition enriched with target language features, can be an effective way to develop implicit knowledge of communication strategies.

• Strategic competence (SC) is a crucial component of communicative competence, enabling speakers to manipulate language to meet their communication goals.

• The scope and function of SC vary across different definitions, with some viewing it as a compensatory role and others as a more general cognitive capacity that underpins problem-solving behavior, as argued by Bachman (1990).

• The current study adopts Celce-Murcia et al.'s (1995) conceptualization of SC, which serves three functions: compensation, interactional, and time-stalling, and defines SC as the ability to use self-solving, interactional, non-verbal, and time-gaining strategies effectively.

Task-Based Language Teaching and Communication Strategies

• Pedagogical tasks, such as Spot-the-Differences, have interactional authenticity, meaning they mimic natural language use found in everyday conversations, despite lacking situational authenticity.

• Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) has two forms: strong and weak, with the strong form, also known as pure TBLT, using tasks as the fundamental unit of the curriculum without prior explicit instruction, and the weak form, also known as Task-Supported Language Teaching (TSLT), using tasks to support existing approaches with explicit instruction before task performance.

• Researchers such as Long and Ellis argue that TBLT, particularly the strong form, can facilitate language acquisition and the development of strategic competence through meaningful communication activities and interaction, while others, like Swan, criticize TBLT for its lack of empirical evidence and suitability for beginner-level learners.

• The Interactional Hypothesis suggests that interactional strategies for meaning negotiation between learners and their interlocutors can facilitate Second-language acquisition , as seen in the work of Gass, Long, and Mackey.

• Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) provides opportunities for learners to notice gaps in their linguistic knowledge and develop strategic competence through communicative tasks, as argued by Gass, Robinson, and Tarone.

• Communication strategies (CSs) can be defined from two perspectives: the psycholinguistic perspective, which focuses on internal cognitive processes, and the interactional perspective, which emphasizes external and interactive processes, with researchers like Tarone and Nakatani contributing to the understanding of CSs from these viewpoints.

• The interactional perspective of communication strategies (CSs) is adopted in the current study, which involves the cooperation of both the speaker and listener to solve communication problems.

• Classifying CSs is challenging due to varying taxonomies, with different researchers categorizing similar strategies differently, such as Tarone (1977) and Færch and Kasper (1983).

• To overcome classification confusion, the study provides a full definition and description for each CS, and selects strategies to be developed based on specific characteristics, focusing on L2-based strategies recommended by researchers like Russell and Loschky (1998) and Rabab’ah (2004).

• The study categorizes communication strategies (CSs) into five categories: interactional strategies, positive self-solving strategies, time-gaining strategies, non-verbal communication strategies, and non-taught communication strategies.

• Positive self-solving strategies include circumlocution, approximation, self-correction, and use of all-purpose words, which enable learners to solve communication problems without seeking help from their interlocutor.

• The study focuses on teaching 13 out of 18 CSs, including circumlocution, approximation, and self-correction, as they represent learners' active strategic behavior in repairing and maintaining interaction and are recommended to be taught in foreign language classes.

Literature Review and Theoretical Framework

• Research suggests that Direct instruction of communication strategies (CSs) can promote learners' strategic competence and enhance their communication skills, as found in studies by Dornyei (1995), Faucette (2001), and Rossiter (2003).

• Empirical studies, such as those by Salomone and Marsal (1997), Scullen and Jourdain (2000), and Nakatani (2005), have investigated the effects of teaching CSs on learners' strategy use and oral performance, with many showing positive results.

• Various studies, including those by Lam (2006), Maleki (2007), and Tavakoli et al (2011), have demonstrated that explicit instruction of CSs can lead to improved oral proficiency, increased awareness of strategy use, and enhanced speaking skills.

• Scullen and Jourdain (2000) found that explicit training on oral circumlocution strategies had no significant impact on learners' performance due to the small sample size.

• Rossiter (2003) discovered that explicit strategy instruction had a direct impact on learners' use of communication strategies, but no significant difference in task completion or message abandonment.

• Nakatani (2005) and other researchers, including Lam (2006), Maleki (2007), Kongsom (2009), Alibakhshi and Padiz (2011), and Tavakoli et al (2011), found that explicit instruction of communication strategies can lead to improvements in oral communication abilities, strategy use, and Language Learning (journal) , but some studies had limitations and inconsistencies in their findings.

• The study investigates the effect of explicit and implicit strategy training on learners' strategic competence and task completion, differing from previous studies in its approach and methodology.

• Previous studies have shown that strategy training can be beneficial for promoting oral performance, but have limitations in their data collection methods and scope of communication strategies explored.

• The current study aims to address these gaps by comparing implicit and explicit instruction, using a mixed-methods approach, and exploring a wide range of communication strategies, including meaning-negotiation, positive self-solving, and non-verbal strategies.

• Explicit instruction involves providing learners with information about language rules and patterns, either deductively or inductively, and is characterized by features such as directing attention to target forms and using metalinguistic terminology, as highlighted by Housen and Pierrard (2006).

• Implicit learning is a process where learners acquire knowledge without intending to and without being aware of what they have learned, whereas explicit learning involves conscious intention to find out language patterns and develop conscious knowledge, as defined by Hulstijn (2005) and Rebuschat (2013).

• Implicit knowledge is unconscious and automatic, while explicit knowledge is conscious and can be verbalized, with researchers such as Ellis (2015) and DeKeyser (2009) noting that both types of knowledge are necessary for Language Learning (journal) , but implicit knowledge is more important for effective communicative use.

• The non-interface position argues that implicit and explicit knowledge are distinct language acquisition systems, with explicit knowledge serving as a monitor to edit utterances and correct mistakes.

• The strong interface position posits a relationship between explicit and implicit knowledge, with two variants: implicit knowledge becoming explicit through conscious reflection, and explicit knowledge transforming into implicit knowledge through practice and automatization.

• The weak interface position, advanced by Ellis, suggests that explicit knowledge and instruction play a role in developing implicit knowledge, with three versions: explicit knowledge becoming implicit through practice, explicit knowledge facilitating implicit knowledge acquisition, and explicit knowledge producing output that serves as input to implicit learning mechanisms.

Methodology

• The study employed a between-participant design with pre-test, treatment, immediate post-test, and delayed post-test to investigate the development of strategic competence in Arab English as a second or foreign language learners.

• The participants, 52 pre-intermediate adult ESL learners, were randomly allocated to three experimental conditions: explicit instruction, implicit instruction, and a control group.

• The study used a combination of data collection methods, including observation tasks, stimulated recall interviews, and a self-report questionnaire, to assess the participants' use of communication strategies (CSs) and to counter sample bias and potential confoundings.

• Research has found that two-way tasks lead to more negotiated interaction than one-way tasks, and convergent tasks result in more meaning negotiation than divergent tasks.

• Tasks can be categorized into different types, including convergent/divergent, open/closed, and complex/simple, with closed and complex tasks generating more negotiation of meaning among learners.

• Based on these findings, the researcher designed five oral tasks with characteristics such as reciprocal two-way interaction, convergent goals, closed outcomes, and cognitive demands, to elicit interaction and generate negotiation of meaning among students, with a focus on specific communication strategies in each task.

• The study used pre and post-tests, including elicitation tasks, stimulated recall interviews, and a self-reported questionnaire, to gauge participants' use of communication strategies.

• Elicitation tasks were designed to be reciprocal, two-way, and cognitively demanding, with the goal of assessing learners' actual use of communication strategies.

• Stimulated recall interviews were used to tap into participants' underlying thought processes, allowing them to comment on their strategic behavior, and to cross-check the validity of observed communication strategies, with researchers such as Poulisse and Gass & Mackey supporting the use of this methodology.

• The study used observation and stimulated recall interviews to collect data on learners' communication strategies, with the researcher noting observed strategies and non-verbal cues at fixed intervals.

• The stimulated recall interviews involved learners watching their own video recordings and commenting on their performance, with the researcher asking prompt questions to facilitate recall, such as "Can you describe what you did there? Why did you do that? Any difficulty there?"

• A self-reported questionnaire was developed based on Nakatani's (2006) Oral Communication Strategy Inventory (OCSI) and Kongsom's (2009) Communication Strategy Questionnaire, with modifications made to address limitations and align with the study's theoretical background and proposed taxonomy of communication strategies.

• The study used a modified questionnaire with an 11-point continuous data scale to measure participants' strategy use, and the questionnaire was administered online and in paper-and-pencil format.

• The questionnaire consisted of 41 items distributed over 5 scales, including Meaning-Negotiation, Positive self-solving, Time-gaining CSs, Non-verbal CSs, and Non-taught/observable CSs.

• The experimental procedure involved four main stages: pre-tests, intervention, post-tests, and delayed post-tests, with participants divided into three groups (implicit instruction, explicit instruction, and control group) and receiving strategy training according to Ellis' Framework for Designing Task-Based Lessons.

• The task-phase and post-task phase are the same in both implicit and explicit conditions, where learners work in pairs to perform tasks and the teacher's role is responsive.

• The main differences between the two conditions occur in the pre-task stage, where CSs are explicitly presented in the explicit condition and implicitly presented via video-clips in the implicit condition.

• The data collection process involved a mixed-method approach, using a self-reported questionnaire, oral interaction tasks, and a follow-up stimulated recall interview, with pre-analysis procedures including coding, handling missing data, and measuring internal consistency reliability.

• The study used a Mann-Whitney Mann–Whitney U test to compare the frequencies of communication strategies between the first and second parts of videos, finding no statistically significant difference in taught communication strategies.

• The researcher used TRANSANA software to transcribe 134 video-recorded data and ensured the accuracy of transcription by having a native speaker PhD colleague check for minor corrections.

• The study calculated inter-coder reliability using percent agreement between two coders, with results showing high agreement (0.92 and 0.96) between the researcher and two other coders, confirming the reliability of the coding.

• The study investigated the development of strategic competence through task-based language teaching, comparing implicit and explicit instruction.

• Examples from the study, such as those from participants 1038 and 1053, demonstrated how learners used communication strategies like approximation and circumlocution to convey meaning.

• The study adhered to ethical considerations, including obtaining permission from University of York and English language Centres, and ensuring participant confidentiality and informed consent.

• The study investigated the types of communication strategies (CSs) elicited by information-gap and describe-and-draw tasks, finding that both tasks elicited most types of CSs, except for foreignizing and word coinage.

• The two parallel versions of the same tasks were found to elicit similar tokens and types of CSs, leading to the decision to use only one "describe and draw" task in the main study.

• Piloting the interaction tasks, stimulated recall interviews, and self-report questionnaire revealed several issues, including the overuse of non-lexicalized fillers, difficulties with reflection in the English language, and the need for simpler prompt questions, which were addressed in the main study.

• The pilot study aimed to validate a self-report questionnaire by identifying and addressing difficulties with its items, such as complex words and ambiguous statements.

• Modifications were made to the questionnaire, including adding Arabic translations, rephrasing items, and adding examples to make it easier for participants to understand.

• The questionnaire's rating scale was changed from a 5-point Likert scale to an 11-point continuous rating scale to provide more options for respondents and reduce the loss of information.

• The modified questionnaire was administered to 30 Arab learners of English language to ensure its validity and internal consistency reliability.

Results

• The study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative and qualitative methods, to investigate the effect of implicit and explicit instruction on strategic competence and task completion among pre-intermediate Arabic learners of English.

• The results of the Kruskal-Wallis test showed a significant difference between the three groups (implicit instruction, explicit instruction, and control group) in task completion on pre-post gains.

• Both implicit and explicit instruction groups outperformed the control group in task completion, but there was no significant difference between the implicit and explicit instruction groups.

• The Mann-Whitney Mann–Whitney U test also showed no statistically significant difference between the implicit and explicit groups in task completion on pre-delayed post gains.

• The Cronbach’s Alpha test found acceptable internal consistency reliability for most scales in the questionnaire, except for the time-gaining scale.

• The Shapiro-Wilk test indicated that the data from the questionnaire violated the assumption of normality, leading to the use of non-parametric tests for analysis.

• The study compared the effects of implicit and explicit instruction on learners' use of communication strategies (CSs) and found significant differences between the groups at pre-test in some categories of CSs.

• The results showed that both implicit and explicit instruction led to significant improvements in the use of CSs, with the explicit group showing larger gains in some categories.

• The study also found that the improvements were generally sustained over time, with some decreases in the use of CSs in certain categories, and that the implicit group showed a persistent increase in the use of interactional CSs.

• The effect sizes suggested a favourable impact of both implicit and explicit instruction, with the explicit group showing larger effect sizes in some categories, and the magnitude of change was found to be large in all taught CSs for the explicit group compared to the control group.

• The study compared the effects of implicit and explicit instruction on the development of communication strategies (CSs) in three categories: interactional, positive self-solving, and time-gaining strategies.

• The results showed significant differences between the experimental and control groups in some strategies, with the explicit group generally performing better than the implicit group in interactional and time-gaining strategies.

• However, there were no significant differences between the implicit and explicit groups in positive self-solving strategies, and the implicit group performed better than the control group in some strategies, such as circumlocution and use of all-purpose words.

• The study compared the effects of implicit and explicit instruction on the development of communication strategies (CSs) in learners, with no significant difference found between the two groups in some categories.

• The results of the Mann-Whitney test and Kruskal-Wallis test showed significant differences in certain strategies, such as self-repetition, gestures, and facial expressions, with explicit instruction outperforming implicit instruction in some cases.

• The analysis of questionnaire results revealed that explicit instruction was superior to the control group in developing taught CSs, while implicit instruction outperformed the control group in certain strategies, such as comprehension checks and conversation gambits.

• The data collected from interaction tasks was found to be not normally distributed, so non-parametric tests were used for analysis.

• The Kruskal-Wallis test showed significant differences between the experimental and control groups at pre-test on some communication strategies, such as asking for confirmation and approximation.

• The results of the Kruskal-Wallis test and Mann-Whitney test suggested significant differences between the implicit, explicit, and control groups on pre-post and pre-delayed post gains in some communication strategies, including comprehension check, circumlocution, and approximation.

• The study found no significant difference between implicit and explicit instruction groups on pre-post gains in circumlocution, approximation, and self-solving strategies.

• The explicit instruction group outperformed the implicit and control groups on pre-post gains in developing conversation gambits and hesitation device strategies.

• No significant difference was found between the implicit and explicit groups on pre-post gains in non-verbal strategies, such as gestures and facial expressions, and non-taught strategies, including topic avoidance, message abandonment, and code-switching.

• The study found that explicit instruction was effective in developing learners' use of 12 targeted communication strategies (CSs), with 5 being sustained at the delayed post-test.

• Implicit instruction was also found to be effective in developing learners' use of CSs, with a significant positive effect on task completion at post-test and delayed post-test.

• The results suggest that explicit instruction was superior to implicit instruction in developing non-verbal CSs and time-gaining CSs, but implicit instruction was superior in developing interactional CSs, particularly in the asking for confirmation strategy.

Discussion

• The study found that implicit instruction is more effective than explicit instruction in retaining the use of interactional communication strategies (CSs) after 4 weeks, particularly in the asking for confirmation strategy.

• Procedural task repetition, where learners perform similar tasks with different content, supports task completion and helps learners develop procedural knowledge to deal with new tasks.

• Implicit instruction, implemented through Task-Based Language Teaching methodology, develops certain types of CSs, such as comprehension checks, circumlocution, and approximation, by providing opportunities for learners to negotiate meaning and use CSs in interaction tasks, as supported by researchers like Bygate, Ellis, and Dörnyei.

• The study found that explicit instruction was more effective than implicit instruction in developing a wide range of communication strategies (CSs), including comprehension checks, clarification requests, and conversation gambits.

• Implicit instruction, on the other hand, was found to be more effective in the delayed post-test, particularly in interactional meaning-negotiation strategies, such as asking for confirmation, suggesting that implicit instruction can lead to more solid and stable learning.

• The study's findings support the Depth of Processing Hypothesis by Craik and Lockhart (1972), which states that the process of remembering information depends on the depth to which it was processed, and that implicit instruction can enable learners to engage more deeply in the knowledge and develop their implicit knowledge of CSs.

• The study found that deep processing of information leads to superior recall and retention, as supported by Leowa & Mercer (2015), Mackey (1999), and Murunoi (2000).

Conclusion

• A mixed-methods approach was used for data collection, including interaction tasks, questionnaires, and stimulated recall interviews to measure learners' strategic behavior.

• The study employed a split-class design to assess the differential impact of explicit and implicit instruction on the use of communication strategies (CSs) among pre-intermediate Arab learners of English language .

• The study found that both implicit and explicit instruction are effective in developing learners' strategic competence and supporting task completion.

• Implicit instruction was found to be more effective in retaining communication strategies, particularly interactional and positive self-solving strategies, and led to more durable learning.

• Explicit instruction was found to be more beneficial for developing a wide range of communication strategies, including non-verbal and time-gaining strategies, in the short-term.

Appendices Description

• The document 'Developing Strategic Competence through Task-Based Language Teaching - A Comparison of Implicit and Explicit Instruction' by Khalid includes appendices that define communication strategies used by learners, such as approximation, circumlocution, and self-correction.

• The appendices also provide examples of interaction tasks, including 'describe and draw' tasks, where learners describe a picture to their partner without showing it to them.

• The document outlines lesson plans, including tasks such as 'Spot the differences', 'Mr. Bean Clip', 'The Island Survival Game', and 'Map Game', which are designed to focus on specific communication strategies like approximation, appeal for help, and comprehension checks.

• The text describes a task-based language teaching activity called "Spot-the-differences" where students are given two pictures with nine differences and must find them by describing and asking questions without looking at each other's pictures.

• The text also includes observation schedules and questionnaires with various categories, such as Interactional CSs, Positive self-solving CSs, Time-gaining CSs, Non-verbal CSs, and Non-taught CSs, which are based on the work of researchers like Nakatani (2006) and Kongsom (2009).

• The questionnaires assess students' communication strategies, including items like repeating words, asking for repetition, making comprehension checks, and using gestures and facial expressions to communicate.

• The study, conducted by Khalid Alahmed, investigates the impact of Task-based Language Teaching on developing Arabic English as a second or foreign language learners' speaking proficiency.

• The study involves an online questionnaire that asks participants about communication problems they face while communicating in English language and how they overcome them.

• The questionnaire, which takes approximately 10-15 minutes to complete, consists of 41 statements about different communication strategies that ESL learners might use to help overcome their communication problems.

• The document 'Developing Strategic Competence through Task-Based Language Teaching: A Comparison of Implicit and Explicit Instruction' by Khalid includes various appendices related to communication strategies, task completion scores, and statistical tests.

• The appendices cover topics such as coding schemes for communication strategies, inter-coder reliability, piloting of tasks, and tests of normality for questionnaire and interaction tasks data.

• The results of Mann-Whitney U tests, Cronbach's alpha values, and Shapiro-Wilk tests are presented in the appendices to analyze the data and ensure the reliability of the questionnaire and interaction tasks.

CHAPTER 6 IS WHERE EVERYTHING WE CARE ABOUT IS

The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (Chapter 11 - p318-p353) - Robert Dekeyser

Link with Info

Introduction to Implicit and Explicit Learning

• The chapter by Robert DeKeyser discusses the difference between implicit and explicit learning mechanisms in second language acquisition, with a focus on how these concepts are defined and studied in cognitive psychology.

• Implicit learning is defined as learning without awareness of what is being learned, and is often confused with other concepts such as inductive learning and implicit memory, which are distinct and orthogonal.

• Research on implicit learning has shown that subjects can learn to use complex knowledge to perform tasks without being aware of the underlying structure, as demonstrated in experiments on artificial grammar learning, sequence learning, and control of complex systems, with pioneers such as Arthur Reber and other researchers like Hayes and Broadbent contributing to the field.

Challenges and Debates in Implicit Learning Research

• Research on implicit learning in Artificial Grammar Learning (AGL) experiments has yielded mixed results, with some studies suggesting that implicit learning can occur without awareness, but others arguing that the evidence is flawed due to methodological issues.

• Studies using amnesic patients and dual-task conditions have attempted to demonstrate implicit learning, but their findings have been disputed, with researchers such as Carlson and Gomez arguing that the results can be explained by other factors.

• The issue of abstractness in implicit learning has also been debated, with some researchers arguing that transfer of learning to new contexts implies abstract knowledge, while others, such as Redington and Chater, propose that fragment knowledge can account for such transfer phenomena.

• Research suggests that implicit learning of abstract structure is unlikely, with studies showing limited learning and doubts about the implicit nature of the knowledge acquired.

Evidence for Explicit Instruction Advantage

• Studies by researchers such as N. Ellis, Alanen, and DeKeyser have found that explicit instruction outperforms implicit learning in laboratory experiments, with explicit rule presentation and practice leading to better results.

• Laboratory studies, including those by Doughty and Robinson, have consistently shown that explicit instruction, whether deductive or inductive, leads to better language learning outcomes than implicit instruction, with explicit-deductive instruction often performing best.

• Laboratory studies, such as those by Robinson, Leow, and Rosa and O'Neill, show an advantage for explicit learning over implicit learning in second language acquisition.

• Classroom studies, including those by Scott and von Elek and Oskarsson, also demonstrate an advantage for explicit learning, although the evidence is limited.

Role and Interaction of Implicit and Explicit Knowledge

• Research by Bialystok and Green and Hecht suggests that implicit knowledge plays a role in language use, particularly in making grammaticality judgments under time pressure, while explicit knowledge is used for more fine-grained decisions.

• Research studies have investigated the relationship between explicit knowledge and implicit knowledge in second language acquisition, with some findings suggesting a strong correlation between rule knowledge and ability to correct errors.

• The role of explicit learning and practice in bridging the gap between explicit knowledge and use is debated, with some researchers (e.g., Krashen) arguing that explicit learning cannot lead to implicit knowledge, while others (e.g., DeKeyser, Hulstijn, Schmidt) see explicit learning and practice as useful for acquiring certain rules.

Alternative Models and Learner Differences

• Connectionist models of SLA propose that linguistic knowledge can be represented by low-level associations between concrete forms, rather than rules, and that all knowledge is acquired and represented implicitly, which challenges the debate over implicit/explicit learning of rules.

• Research suggests that adults learn a second language (L2) faster initially, but are limited in ultimate attainment, and that implicit learning may not be sufficient for complex structures.

• Studies by Tucker, Lambert, and Rigault (1977), Holmes and Dejean de la Batie (1999), and S. E. Carroll (1999) show that L2 learners may benefit from explicit instruction on phonological cues, such as word endings, to learn French gender and other prototypicality patterns.

Factors Influencing Learning Effectiveness

• The effectiveness of implicit and explicit learning depends on the nature of the element of grammar to be learned, with explicit instruction being more useful for complex or difficult rules, as argued by researchers such as Reber, Krashen, and Robinson, and summarized in table 11.1 by Robert DeKeyser.

• Implicit learning is more effective for learning concrete elements in close proximity, while explicit learning is more effective for abstract elements or those that are distant or complex.

• The effectiveness of implicit and explicit learning processes differs between children and adults, with children relying more on implicit learning and adults relying more on explicit learning due to their developed analytical abilities.

• Research suggests that the instructional approach should be tailored to the learner's age, with immersion being more suitable for children and formal rule teaching being more suitable for adolescents and adults, as proposed by researchers such as Robert DeKeyser and Robert Bley-Vroman.

Research Methodology and Future Directions

• The field of implicit learning faces a trade-off between internal and external validity, with three options for conducting research: narrow experiments, realistic experiments in classrooms, or a compromise between the two.

• Researchers must consider the interaction between learning conditions, linguistic features, and learners' aptitudes to gain a deeper understanding of implicit and explicit learning processes.

• Studies such as Robinson (1996) and Williams (1999) demonstrate the value of examining the interaction between different learning processes, aptitudes, and L2 structures, and highlight the need for more comprehensive and ecologically valid research in the field of second language acquisition.

References

• The section appears to be a list of references from a chapter on implicit and explicit learning in second language acquisition, citing researchers such as Bialystok, Birdsong, and DeKeyser.

• The references cover various topics, including the critical period hypothesis, language aptitude, and the role of explicit and implicit knowledge in language learning.

• Researchers like Ellis, Hulstijn, and Krashen are also mentioned, discussing aspects of second language acquisition, such as grammar instruction, language proficiency, and the distinction between implicit and explicit learning.

• The Input Hypothesis by Krashen suggests that language acquisition is driven by comprehensible input.

• Researchers such as Long, Robinson, and Schmidt have explored the role of attention, awareness, and consciousness in second language learning.

• Studies by Reber, Perruchet, and others have investigated implicit and explicit learning processes in language acquisition, including the role of artificial grammar learning and the distinction between implicit and explicit knowledge.

• Researchers such as Sokolik, Smith, and Spada have investigated various aspects of second language acquisition, including the assignment of gender to French nouns and form-focussed instruction.

• Studies by Swain, Lapkin, and others have explored the role of comprehensible input and output in developing communicative competence.

• Scholars like VanPatten, Tucker, and Whittlesea have examined the relationship between implicit learning, consciousness, and language acquisition, with some focusing on the benefits and drawbacks of controlled laboratory studies.

Second Language Learning Theories (Chapters 4,5 - 114-175) - Rosamond Mitchell, Florence Myles, and Emma Marsden

Link with Info

• The chapter discusses second language learning theories, highlighting the importance of understanding the complex processes involved in acquiring a new language, as explained by Rosamond Mitchell.

• The behaviorist theory of language learning is introduced, which suggests that language acquisition is a result of external factors, such as environment and reinforcement, and that learners acquire language through habit formation and conditioning.

• The innatist theory, proposed by Noam Chomsky, is also explored, which posits that humans have an innate capacity for language acquisition, and that learners are born with a universal grammar that facilitates language learning.

• The cognitive theory of language learning is discussed, which emphasizes the role of mental processes, such as attention, perception, and memory, in language acquisition, and suggests that learners actively construct their own knowledge and understanding of the language.

• The sociocultural theory, developed by Lev Vygotsky, is examined, which highlights the importance of social interaction and cultural context in language learning, and suggests that learners acquire language through collaborative dialogue and social constructivism.

• The interaction hypothesis, proposed by Michael Long, is also considered, which suggests that language learning is facilitated through meaningful interactions between learners and native speakers, and that these interactions provide opportunities for learners to negotiate meaning and develop their language skills.

• The chapter also discusses the role of learner factors, such as motivation, anxiety, and learning style, in language learning, and highlights the importance of understanding individual differences in language learning.

• Additionally, the chapter explores the concept of language learning strategies, which refers to the techniques and approaches used by learners to manage their own learning, and suggests that effective language learners are able to select and use a range of strategies to facilitate their language development.

• The importance of context and environment in language learning is also emphasized, including the role of classroom instruction, teacher feedback, and authentic materials, in shaping the language learning experience.

• Overall, the chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the complex and multifaceted nature of second language learning, highlighting the interplay between internal and external factors, and emphasizing the need for a nuanced understanding of the language learning process.

At the Interface: Dynamic Interactions of Explicit and Implicit Language Knowledge - Ellis, N. C. ~

Link with Info

(Ellis, N. C. (2005). At the Interface: Dynamic Interactions of Explicit and Implicit Language Knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27**(2), 305-352.)**

Introduction: Explicit and Implicit Language Knowledge Interface

• The interface between explicit and implicit language knowledge is dynamic, with explicit knowledge impacting implicit language learning through various psychological and neurobiological processes.

• Explicit learning involves conscious processing, such as noticing and analyzing language patterns, while implicit learning occurs during fluent comprehension and production.

• Researchers like Nick Ellis, Rod Ellis, and others contribute to the understanding of language acquisition, with usage-based theories suggesting that language is learned through engagement in communication and the abstraction of regularities from language use.

• Implicit learning plays a crucial role in language acquisition, creating hierarchical organizational structures and linguistic prototypes through the association of components.

• However, implicit learning alone is not sufficient for language acquisition, and explicit instruction can speed up the process, with research showing that focused instruction results in substantial target-oriented gains.

• The interface between explicit and implicit knowledge is dynamic, with explicit learning and implicit learning interacting and influencing each other, and research suggests that consciousness plays a key role in this interface, particularly in situations where automatic capabilities fail.

• The goal of the paper is to outline mechanisms of language learning, incorporating prior proposals and relating them to current neuroscientific analyses of consciousness and language.

Consciousness and Learning

• Recent advances in the scientific study of consciousness have led to a better understanding of the neural correlates of consciousness (NCC) and the role of consciousness in learning, with researchers such as Baars, Christof Koch , and Dehaene contributing to this field.

• The interface between conscious and implicit learning is crucial, with consciousness acting as a gateway to access and coordinate information from various parts of the brain, as described in Global workspace theory by Baars.

• The human brain's information processing involves complex dynamic interactions between implicit and explicit knowledge, with consciousness playing a role in reflecting these interactions.

• According to Global Workspace Theory and research into Neural Correlates of Consciousness (NCC), the brain interfaces functionally and anatomically independent implicit and explicit memory systems.

Learning Processes and Memory Systems

• The process of learning a new word, such as "gavagai", is guided by implicit distributional analysis and constrained by prior knowledge of grammatical categories and frames, with researchers like Willard Van Orman Quine , Gleitman, and Tomasello contributing to the understanding of this process.

• Implicit learning can occur through usage examples, but explicit learning is necessary for understanding and consolidating linguistic constructions, particularly when encountering comprehension problems.

• Conscious awareness and attention play a crucial role in the initial registration of pattern recognizers for linguistic constructions, as emphasized by Schmidt's noticing hypothesis and researchers like Faerch, Kasper, and White.

• The hippocampal system and neocortical sensori-motor areas form two complementary memory systems, with the hippocampus involved in the consolidation of explicit memories and the neocortex in implicit tuning, as supported by brain imaging studies and researchers like Gabrieli, Moscovitch, and Larry Squire .

• The neocortex and hippocampus play different roles in learning, with the neocortex gradually integrating new information and the hippocampus rapidly assigning distinctive representations to input patterns.

• Explicit memory is necessary for the acquisition of novel linguistic constructions, and deficiencies in explicit memory, such as those found in anterograde amnesic patients, severely impair this ability.

• Skilled explicit learning, such as through mnemonic techniques and deep, elaborative processing, allows for the rapid consolidation of new vocabulary and constructions, with initial representations often involving the consolidation of specific, concrete explicit memories, or "formulas".

Acquisition Processes, Models, and L2 Challenges

• Explicit language knowledge can be acquired through a naturalistic process, from formula to creative construction, with implicit learning occurring through usage and priming of language elements.

• Connectionist models can simulate implicit language acquisition, but critics argue that the selection of input data may influence the model's outcomes and provide a priori solutions to the problem.

• L2 learners often struggle with morphology, particularly functional inflection, due to low salience and redundancy of cues, which can lead to these aspects being ignored or blocked in the learning process, as noted by researchers such as Nick Ellis and others, including Klein and Perdue.

• English learners of Chinese and Japanese learners of English often struggle with specific aspects of the target language due to differences in their native language (L1), such as tones in Chinese and the article system in English.

• According to researchers like MacWhinney, learners tend to carry their L1 cue strength hierarchy to their L2, which can lead to difficulties in resetting the ordering of cues.

• Explicit instruction, as suggested by researchers like Schmidt and Terrell, can help learners notice and consolidate new cues, with techniques like Processing Instruction (VanPatten, 1996) aiming to alter learners' default processing strategies.

• The use of exaggerated stimuli and adaptive training can help learners overcome negative transfer and acquire new language skills, with consciousness playing a crucial role in changing behavior.

• Explicit learning mechanisms, such as noticing and errorless learning, can be used to change the cues that learners focus on in their language processing, thereby tuning their implicit learning systems.

Developing Fluency and Accuracy through Explicit Knowledge and Practice

• Learners can use explicit memories and declarative knowledge, such as formulas, drills, and metalinguistic rules, as scaffolding to construct novel utterances, with conscious processes like analogical reasoning and conceptual blending involved in creative construction.

• Learners can monitor their own output and use metalinguistic knowledge to correct errors, with researchers like Krashen and Baars discussing the role of consciousness in this process.

• Feedback from native speakers, such as recasts, can help learners notice gaps in their language knowledge and provide opportunities for correction and improvement, as discussed by researchers like Doughty and Long.

• Practice and repetition can lead to the development of automaticity in language production, with effects including improved access, schematization, chunking, and automatization, as described by researchers like Sharwood Smith, Bybee, and Anderson.

• The ACT model describes the move from declarative to procedural knowledge in three stages: cognitive, associative, and autonomous, as discussed by McLaughlin, Schmidt, and other researchers.

Factors Influencing Learning Effectiveness: Complexity, Working Memory, and Output

• Implicit learning is good for chunking and acquiring local serial associations, but more complex learning, such as long-distance discontinuous dependencies, requires conscious explicit learning and hypothesis testing, as shown in experiments by Ellis, Lee, and Reber.

• Working memory and awareness play a crucial role in associative learning across time and distraction, with research by Clark and Larry Squire , and Han et al, demonstrating the importance of attention and working memory in learning discontinuous associations.

• Research by Lyster, Panova, and De Bot supports the idea that producing comprehensible output helps learners develop accuracy and fluency in a second language (L2).

• Studies by Norris, Ortega, Izumi, and DeKeyser demonstrate the effectiveness of encouraging learners to produce output, with a substantial average effect size of 1.39, and show that opportunities for reconstruction in pushed output tasks promote noticing and rule-learning.

• The work of Baars, Baddeley, and Ellis highlights the importance of working memory in language acquisition, with individual differences in working memory capacity predicting language learning aptitude, and suggests that a balanced learning curriculum with opportunities for meaning-focused input, output, form-focused learning, and fluency development is necessary for effective language learning.

Conclusion: Dynamic Interaction and Author's Perspective

• The author, Nick Ellis, distinguishes between conscious and unconscious learning mechanisms, emphasizing the importance of attention and consciousness in the former and connectionist learning in the latter.

• Ellis argues that implicit and explicit systems are dynamically involved together in every cognitive task and learning episode, with the input to implicit learning systems coming from explicit representations forged from prior attended processing.

• The author suggests that language learning is part of a dynamic network system, with working memory, attention, and prior experience playing crucial roles in the learning, representation, and processing of language, as supported by researchers such as Luria, Vygotsky, and Schmidt.

References

• The section appears to be a bibliography or reference list for a document titled "At the Interface: Dynamic Interactions of Explicit and Implicit Language Knowledge" by Nick Ellis.

• The list includes works from various researchers, including Baddeley, Bialystok, Bloom, and DeKeyser, among others, covering topics such as language learning, memory, attention, and cognitive linguistics.

• The references span multiple decades, from 1932 to 2004, indicating a comprehensive review of existing research in the field of language knowledge and cognition.

• The section appears to be a list of references from the document "At the Interface: Dynamic Interactions of Explicit and Implicit Language Knowledge" by Nick Ellis.

• The references include works from various authors, including Nick Ellis, Catherine Doughty, and Rod Ellis, on topics such as second language acquisition, implicit and explicit learning, and language processing.

• The references span multiple years, from 1989 to 2004, and include books, journal articles, and unpublished manuscripts from authors like Edelman, Dienes, and Robinson.

• The section appears to be a reference list from the document 'At the Interface: Dynamic Interactions of Explicit and Implicit Language Knowledge' by Nick Ellis.

• The list includes citations from various researchers, including Elman, Engle, Evans, and Goldberg, among others, covering topics such as language acquisition, cognitive science, and neuroscience.

• The references span multiple decades, from the 1940s to the 2000s, indicating a comprehensive review of existing research in the field of language knowledge and acquisition.

• The section appears to be a bibliography or reference list for a document titled 'At the Interface: Dynamic Interactions of Explicit and Implicit Language Knowledge' by Nick Ellis.

• The list includes works from various authors, including Karmiloff-Smith, Krashen, MacWhinney, and McClelland, among others.

• The references cover a range of topics related to language acquisition, cognitive science, and psychology, including implicit and explicit language learning, attention, and memory.

• The section appears to be a bibliography or reference list for a document titled "At the Interface: Dynamic Interactions of Explicit and Implicit Language Knowledge" by Nick Ellis.

• The list includes works from various authors, including Ellis, Miyake, Morris, and others, and covers topics such as language acquisition, cognitive psychology, and neuroscience.

• The references span multiple decades, from the 1960s to the 2000s, and include books, journal articles, and edited volumes from prominent publishers in the field.

• The section appears to be a bibliography or reference list for a document titled "At the Interface: Dynamic Interactions of Explicit and Implicit Language Knowledge" by Nick Ellis.

• The list includes works from various authors, including Skehan, Skousen, Smith, Spada, Larry Squire , and Swain, among others, covering topics in language learning, cognitive psychology, and linguistics.

• The references span multiple decades, from the 1930s to the 2000s, indicating a comprehensive review of existing research in the field of language acquisition and cognitive science.

Theories in second language acquisition: An Introduction (Chapter 6) - Bill VanPatten and Jessica Williams ~

Link with Info

DeKeyser, R. (2007). Skill acquisition theory. In B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 97-113). Routledge.

Fundamentals of Skill Acquisition Theory

• Skill Acquisition Theory explains how people progress from initial learning to advanced proficiency in various skills, including cognitive and psychomotor skills.

• The theory proposes three stages of development: declarative, procedural, and automatic, as described by researchers such as Fitts and Posner, Anderson, and Byrne.

• The power law of learning, a mathematical concept, describes how reaction time and error rate decrease systematically with practice, reflecting a qualitative change in cognitive mechanisms, with a shift from declarative to procedural knowledge and eventual automatization of procedural knowledge, as discussed by researchers like Newell, Rosenbloom, and DeKeyser.

• The process of proceduralization and automatization in skill acquisition requires the right conditions, including declarative knowledge and a suitable task setup, as argued by Anderson, Fincham, and Douglass (1997) and DeKeyser (2007b).

Research Evidence in Skill Acquisition

• Research on skill acquisition has utilized various forms of evidence, including behavioral data (e.g., reaction times, error rates), computational modeling (e.g., ACT, EPIC, SOAR), and neurological data (e.g., neuroimaging, evoked potentials), as discussed in studies by Newell and Rosenbloom (1981), Anderson (1993, 2007), and Raichle et al. (1994).

Skill Acquisition Theory and Second Language Learning: Application and Context

• Despite the abundance of research on skill acquisition in general, there is a lack of studies specifically applying Skill Acquisition Theory to second language learning, with some notable exceptions, such as DeKeyser (1997), Robinson (1997), and De Jong and Perfetti (2011), who have investigated the role of proceduralization, automatization, and practice distribution in second language acquisition.

• Skill Acquisition Theory is often misunderstood as either explaining everything about second language acquisition or nothing, and is also seen as incompatible with empirical findings in the field.

• The theory is most applicable to high-aptitude adult learners learning simple structures in instructional contexts, but its concepts can still be useful in other learning situations.

• Skill Acquisition Theory is not in competition with other theories, such as processing instruction, task-based learning, and the notion of implicit learning, but rather complements them, as noted by researchers like VanPatten, DeKeyser, and Ellis.

Mechanisms Explained by Skill Acquisition Theory in SLA

• Skill Acquisition Theory explains the differences in language learners' proficiency levels due to factors such as declarative knowledge, practice, and sequencing of explicit and implicit information.

• The theory emphasizes the importance of proceduralization and automatization of knowledge, which can be achieved through explicit learning and practice, leading to functionally equivalent implicit knowledge.

• Research in Skill Acquisition Theory suggests that there can be a synergy between explicit and implicit learning, with explicit learning being more effective for simple rules and implicit learning being more effective for complex and probabilistic patterns.

Summary and Further Reading on SAT in SLA

• The section discusses Skill Acquisition Theory and its application to second language learning, with references to researchers such as Anderson, DeKeyser, and Ellis.

• It highlights the importance of practice and automatization in language acquisition, citing studies by DeKeyser, Logan, and others.

• The section also mentions various books and articles that provide a more thorough discussion of Skill Acquisition Theory, including works by DeKeyser, Anderson, and Segalowitz.

Related Research and Frameworks in Second Language Acquisition

• The section references various researchers, including Lyster, Sato, and DeKeyser, who have studied the role of practice in second language development.

• Theories such as skill acquisition theory and the declarative/procedural model are mentioned as frameworks for understanding second language acquisition.

• Researchers like Robinson, Rodgers, and Serrano have investigated the effects of different instructional approaches, such as task-based language learning and corrective feedback, on second language learning.

"Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning" by Stephen D. Krashen ~

Link with Info

Krashen, S.D., 1981. Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

The Monitor Theory: Acquisition and Learning

• Stephen Krashen's Monitor Theory proposes that adults have two independent systems for developing ability in second languages: subconscious language acquisition and conscious language learning.

• The theory states that subconscious acquisition is more important and that conscious learning is available to the performer only as a Monitor to alter the output of the acquired system.

• The Monitor can only be used under certain conditions: the performer must have time, be focused on form, and know the rule to apply it correctly, making successful Monitor use rare in normal conversation.

• The acquisition-learning hypothesis explains the relationship between language aptitude, language attitude, and second language achievement, with aptitude related to conscious learning and attitude related to acquisition.

• The distinction between acquisition and learning helps to resolve puzzles in second language acquisition research, such as the role of formal and informal linguistic environments, with informal environments promoting real language use and acquisition.

Key Concepts and Individual Variation in Monitor Use

• Key concepts, including the Monitor, Formal Operations, and the role of the first language, are explored in the context of second language acquisition, with implications for language teaching and the importance of comprehensible input, as discussed by researchers like Stephen Krashen, Newmark, and Lenneberg.

• Simple codes, or comprehensible input, can facilitate second language acquisition by providing a natural syllabus with a low "affective filter".

• The acquisition-learning distinction helps interpret individual variation in second language performers, with some utilizing the Monitor (conscious knowledge of the target language) more than others.

• Successful Monitor users, such as P, edit their output to improve accuracy without hindering communication, while overusers, like S, may prioritize correctness over fluency, leading to difficulties in spoken language production.

• Overusers of the Monitor are individuals who use conscious linguistic knowledge to correct errors and have a hesitant, overcareful style of speaking, often being self-conscious and introverted.

• Underusers of the Monitor, on the other hand, do not use conscious grammar rules, instead relying on subconscious knowledge and judging grammaticality "by feel", and tend to be outgoing and uninhibited.

The Role of Aptitude and Attitude

• Research suggests that language aptitude, as measured by tests such as the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT), is related to conscious learning, while attitudinal factors may be more closely linked to acquisition, with some individuals having high aptitude but low attitude, or vice versa, as noted by researchers like Carroll and Pimsleur.

• Attitudinal factors, such as motivation and personality traits, play a crucial role in second language acquisition by influencing the acquirer's ability to obtain necessary input and utilize it for language acquisition.

• Integrative motivation, defined by researchers like Gardner, is predicted to relate to proficiency as it encourages interaction with speakers of the target language and contributes to a low affective filter, as proposed by Dulay and Burt.

• Other attitudinal factors, including instrumental motivation, self-confidence, and empathy, also impact language acquisition, with self-confident individuals being more likely to have a lower affective filter and acquire language more effectively, as suggested by H. D. Brown and Schumann.

• Integrative motivation is a stronger predictor of second language proficiency in situations where intake is available, such as in the Canadian Anglophone situation and in ESL in the United States.

• Integrative motivation is especially important for the development of communicative skills, and it provides the necessary motivation to persist in second language studies.

• Instrumental motivation may take precedence in situations where there is a special urgency about second language acquisition and little desire to integrate, such as in foreign-language learning in the US or in countries where English is not widely spoken.

• Anxiety level has a consistent relationship with language proficiency, with low anxiety being associated with better language acquisition.

• Self-image and self-confidence also play a role in second language acquisition, with positive self-perceptions relating to better performance in language tests.

• Research suggests that a positive self-concept is related to higher achievement in ESL, with traits like self-confidence, kindness, and a calm demeanor contributing to better language learning outcomes.

• Outgoing personality, extroversion, and empathy may also play a role in second language acquisition, with studies showing correlations between these traits and language proficiency, although the evidence is not always consistent.

• Other factors, such as attitude towards the classroom and teacher, analytic personality, and field independence, may also influence second language learning, with field independence potentially being more relevant to older students and more monitored language tasks.

• Formal operations may have negative effects on language acquisition, particularly in adolescents, due to increased self-consciousness and a heightened affective filter.

• Attitudinal factors, such as motivation and self-confidence, play a significant role in second language acquisition, with integrative motivation being a key factor in successful language acquisition.

The Good Language Learner and the Linguistic Environment

• Good language learners are those who can obtain sufficient intake in the second language and have a low affective filter, allowing them to utilize this input for language acquisition, and may use conscious learning as a supplement to acquisition.

• The optimal linguistic environment for adult second language students is a topic of interest, with two types of environments being considered: formal (classroom) and informal (natural) environments.

• Studies such as those by Upshur, Mason, and Carroll suggest that adults can increase their second language proficiency in informal environments, but other studies, such as those by Krashen and Seliger, argue that formal instruction is more efficient.

• Two hypotheses are being considered: that informal environments can be efficiently utilized by adult second language learners, and that formal study is more efficient than informal exposure in increasing second language proficiency.

• Studies by Krashen, Jones, Zelinski, and Usprich (1978) found that years of formal English study is a better predictor of English proficiency than time spent in an English-speaking environment.

• The difference between "heard language" and "intake" is crucial, with intake referring to language that the acquirer is actively involved with, which is necessary for language acquisition.

• The classroom can contribute to both language acquisition and learning, with formal instruction increasing second language proficiency, and intensive, daily, and often demanding second language environments being effective for acquisition.

• The classroom can provide additional intake for second language acquisition, but it is not necessary when children have access to rich intake environments.

• Formal and informal linguistic environments contribute to second language proficiency in different ways, with intensive intake informal environments providing necessary input for language acquisition.

The Natural Order Hypothesis

• The "natural order" of grammatical morpheme acquisition is similar for children and adults, and is manifested when performance is "Monitor-free", with studies by researchers such as Brown, Dulay, and Burt, and Krashen confirming this order.

• The natural order of language acquisition is not an artifact of the Bilingual Syntax Measure (BSM), as studies using different methods have also found similar orders.

• Research by Janet Keyfetz Fuller and others has shown that the natural order is consistent across different studies, including those using the SLOPE test, which has some characteristics of a discrete-point test.

• A review of studies on grammatical morphemes in obligatory occasions found a high degree of uniformity in the order of acquisition, with some minor variations, supporting the idea of a natural order in second language acquisition.

• Studies have shown a high correlation with the proposed "natural order" of grammatical morpheme acquisition in second language learning, with correlations ranging from 0.368 to 0.962.

• The observed morpheme order is considered to be a manifestation of the creative construction process, or language acquisition, and is highly reliable, occurring in predictable situations for adults.

• Researchers such as Dulay, Burt, Larsen-Freeman, and Krashen have contributed to the understanding of the natural order, while others like Wode, Bahns, Bedey, and Frank have discussed the shortcomings of the morpheme order approach, highlighting the importance of studying transitional competence and avoidance phenomena.

First Language Influence

• First language influence is strongest in complex word order and word-for-word translations of phrases, as seen in studies by Duskova and LoCoco.

• First language influence is weaker in bound morphology, with errors in this area often due to interference between terms in the English subsystem rather than first language influence, as noted by Duskova and Kellerman.

• First language influence seems to be strongest in "acquisition poor" environments, where natural intake is scarce, and can be reduced by natural intake and language use, as suggested by Dulay, Burt, and Krashen.

Neurolinguistic Aspects of Second Language Acquisition

• Research suggests that the left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for most linguistic performance in adults, while the right hemisphere is involved in spatial relations and other non-linguistic functions.

• The development of cerebral dominance, or lateralization, is a topic of controversy, with some researchers, such as Lenneberg, suggesting that it is complete by puberty, while others argue that it may be established earlier, around age 5.

• Studies using techniques such as dichotic listening, motor skills, and brain damage, support the idea of early lateralization, with researchers like Witelson and Krashen finding evidence of right-ear superiority and right-handedness in young children.

• Research suggests that left hemisphere dominance for language function is present from birth and increases until around age 5, with some aspects of language not fully lateralized until later, possibly puberty.

• The development of cerebral dominance may be complete much earlier than previously thought and may have little to do with the critical period for language acquisition, contradicting Lenneberg's claim.

• The right hemisphere may play a role in second language acquisition, particularly in early stages, with studies showing that the right hemisphere is involved in processing the second language, and its participation decreases as proficiency increases, as suggested by researchers such as Obler.

• The right hemisphere may be involved in the initial stages of second language acquisition, with the left hemisphere taking over as syntax is acquired.

• Research by Galloway and others suggests that the right hemisphere plays a role in early language acquisition, but not necessarily in language learning, which may involve conscious grammar located in the left hemisphere.

• The stage hypothesis proposes that the right hemisphere is involved in early stages of language acquisition, but this hypothesis is not without potential counter-examples and requires further study to determine the role of the right hemisphere in language acquisition.

Routines and Patterns in Language Acquisition

• Research by Whitaker and others suggests that automatic speech is neurologically different from creative language, with automatic speech being localized on both sides of the brain.

• Studies by R. Brown and others on first language acquisition indicate that children learn routines and patterns through high input frequency, which can be separate from the creative construction process.

• Different researchers, including Clark and Peters, have proposed varying views on the role of routines and patterns in language development, with some arguing they evolve into creative language and others suggesting they are a separate system, but ultimately, creative language predominates in language development.

• Hatch and Hakuta provide evidence that second language acquirers use routines and patterns to facilitate social interaction, with Hatch suggesting that this is due to the acquirer's greater capacity to remember longer utterances, and Hakuta emphasizing the need to communicate.

• Wagner-Gough's study supports the idea that patterns do not directly evolve into creative rule-governed language, while L. Fillmore's study suggests that the acquisition of formulaic speech is central to language learning, allowing learners to analyze and acquire language structures.

• Fillmore's research shows that children acquiring a second language heavily rely on routines and patterns, which eventually break down into smaller units, freeing parts to recombine and form creative language, with the linguistic environment and the need for social contact driving this process.

• Language acquirers may use routines and patterns to communicate when their linguistic competence is limited, as seen in Fillmore's study of children and Hanania and Gradman's study of an adult, Fatmah.

• The use of routines and patterns can help acquirers participate in activities that provide contexts for learning new language, but it is not the primary way language is acquired.

• The creative construction process, where acquirers build language structures analytically, is a more fundamental process in language acquisition, and routines and patterns may serve as intake for this process, but are not sufficient for successful language acquisition.

Implications for Teaching: Providing Intake

• The ideal second language teaching program should focus on language acquisition rather than the traditional "four skills" approach, with acquisition and learning as the two major components.

• The most important part of the program is providing "intake" for acquisition, which refers to the subset of linguistic input that helps the acquirer acquire language, and is characterized by being understood, natural, and communicative.

• Optimal input for language acquisition includes structures that are "just beyond" the acquirer's current level of competence, with "rough tuning" being more efficient than exactly matching the input to the acquirer's developing competence, as suggested by researchers such as Oller, Snow, and Ferguson, and supported by Krashen's "Monitor Theory".

• Intake is fundamental to language acquisition, and it can be obtained through natural and comprehensible input, such as communicative activities and interactions with native speakers or peer groups.

• Several approaches can provide intake, including the "Natural Approach" proposed by Terrell, "Intercambio" by John Cromshaw, extensive reading, and techniques like Asher's "total physical response".

• Motivation and attitude play a crucial role in language acquisition, and an "affective filter" can block intake if the acquirer's motivations and attitudes are not optimal, as discussed by Dulay and Burt, and further elaborated by Stevick in "Memory, Meaning, and Method".

• Second language production can be performed in three ways: using the acquired system, utilizing prefabricated patterns and routines, or relying on the surface structure of the first language with the help of the Monitor.

• According to Stephen D. Krashen, the use of routines and patterns, and the use of the first language as a substitute utterance initiator, can be helpful in early production but have limitations for long-term utilization.

• Krashen suggests that the main goal of a fluency section in a second language program is to aid in performance, and that conscious learning of rules is not necessary for acquisition, but can be useful for editing and monitoring.

The Role of the Classroom and Simple Codes

• The second language classroom can be an effective place for second language acquisition, as it can provide the acquirer with intake through meaningful and communicative activities.

• Intake is essential for language acquisition, and the classroom can provide it through teacher-talk, peer interaction, and other activities.

• Explicit information about the language and mechanical drill may be the least important contributions of the second language classroom, with many successful language learners combining "grammar" study and "immersion" as their preferred approach to second language acquisition, as seen in the "Good Language Learner" study by Naimon et al.

• Ricardo, a 13-year-old language learner, struggled with complex discussions due to the lack of simpler input in English, highlighting the importance of input difference in second language acquisition.

• Stephen Krashen suggests three ways to provide simpler input: "pull-out" classes, opportunities to meet native speakers who may use "foreigner-talk", and interaction with other ESL acquirers who use "interlanguage" input.

• Krashen explores the question of whether simpler codes, such as "teacher-talk", "interlanguage talk", and "foreigner-talk", can help second language acquirers, using case histories, including that of S. K., a professor of linguistics who acquired multiple languages, to investigate this issue.

• Caretaker speech, which is speech directed to children acquiring their first language, is simpler and more intelligible than adult native speaker-native speaker speech, with features such as shorter sentences and a more restricted vocabulary.

• Research suggests that caretaker speech is "roughly tuned" to the child's level of linguistic competence, providing input that is a little beyond the child's current level, which helps the child progress in their language acquisition.

• The concept of caretaker speech is applied to simple codes such as teacher-talk, interlanguage-talk, and foreigner-talk, which are also attempts to communicate and may have a similar effect on second language acquisition, with research indicating that these simple codes are also "roughly tuned" to the level of the second language acquirer.

• Research suggests that simple codes, such as caretaker speech, teacher-talk, interlanguage-talk, and foreigner-talk, may aid second language acquisition in a similar way to how caretaker speech aids child language acquisition.

• These simple codes are characterized by features such as slower speech, simpler vocabulary, and shorter sentences, which may be roughly tuned to the level of the listener.

• Simple codes may have advantages over traditional classroom exercises, which can be limited by their focus on formal grammar and may not provide enough input for real acquisition to occur, and may also induce an "affective filter" that hinders language acquisition.

• The author describes a successful French class where the teacher used "teacher-talk" to provide input for language acquisition, allowing students to understand nearly everything said in class.

• The class was conducted entirely in French, with a mix of explicit grammar instruction and "free-play" conversation, which the author believes contributed to the students' success.

• The author hypothesizes that the use of simple codes, such as teacher-talk, can be beneficial for language acquisition, and suggests that this can be tested empirically, citing researchers like Palmer, Naimon, and Fathman.

References

• The section appears to be a bibliography or reference list for a document titled 'Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning' by Stephen D. Krashen.

• It includes a wide range of sources from various authors, including Krashen, Burt, Dulay, and Chomsky, covering topics such as language acquisition, linguistics, and psychology.

• The references span multiple decades, from the 1960s to the 1980s, indicating a comprehensive review of existing research on second language acquisition and learning.

• Research by various scholars, including Albert, Geschwind, and Krashen, explores the dynamics of second language acquisition and learning.

• Studies by Guiora, Hakuta, and Hatch examine the relationship between language learning and factors such as lateralization, hemispheric asymmetry, and cognitive development.

• Krashen's work, including his Monitor Model, discusses the role of formal and informal linguistic environments, the critical period, and the natural order of language acquisition in adult second language learning.

• The section appears to be a list of references from the document 'Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning' by Stephen D. Krashen, citing various researchers and their studies on language learning and acquisition.

• Researchers such as Krashen, Selinker, and Oller are mentioned, along with their studies on topics like language proficiency, language testing, and the role of attitude and motivation in second language learning.

• The references cover a range of topics related to second language acquisition, including language teaching methods, language learning strategies, and the effects of age, motivation, and cognitive factors on language learning.

• The section appears to be a list of references from a dissertation or research paper on Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning.

• Researchers mentioned include Wagner-Gough, Hatch, Wesche, and Wode, among others, who have contributed to studies on language learning and acquisition.

• The references cover various topics such as language aptitude, learning behaviors, and neurological aspects of language development, citing authors like Whitaker, Wilkins, and Witelson.

Ethnologue ~

How to cite

Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2025. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-eighth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com.

https://www.ethnologue.com/credits/#footer

The Learning Brain - Thad A. Polk ~

Link with info

Language processing and second language development: processability theory ~

Language processing and second language development: processability theory. By Manfred Pienemann. (Studies in bilingualism, 15.) Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1998. Pp. xviii, 366.